Gallium

zinc ← gallium → germanium Al ↑ Ga ↓ In 31Ga Periodic table
Appearance
silver-white
General properties
Name, symbol, number	gallium, Ga, 31
Pronunciation	/ˈɡæliəm/ GAL-ee-əm
Element category	post-transition metal
Group, period, block	13, 4, p
Standard atomic weight	69.723g·mol−1
Electron configuration	[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 3 (Image)
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	5.91 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.	6.095 g·cm−3
Melting point	302.9146 K, 29.7646 °C, 85.5763 °F
Boiling point	2477 K, 2204 °C, 3999 °F
Heat of fusion	5.59 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization	254 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity	(25 °C) 25.86 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T (K) 1310 1448 1620 1838 2125 2518
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	3, 2, 1 (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	1.81 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies (more)	1st: 578.8 kJ·mol−1
	2nd: 1979.3 kJ·mol−1
	3rd: 2963 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius	135 pm
Covalent radius	122±3 pm
Van der Waals radius	187 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	orthorhombic
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity	(20 °C) 270 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity	(300 K) 40.6 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 1.2 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(20 °C) 2740 m/s
Young's modulus	9.8 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.47
Mohs hardness	1.5
Brinell hardness	60 MPa
CAS registry number	7440-55-3
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of gallium
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 69Ga 60.11% 69Ga is stable with 38 neutrons 71Ga 39.89% 71Ga is stable with 40 neutrons

Gallium is a chemical element that has the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. Elemental gallium does not occur in nature, but as the gallium(III) salt in trace amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. A soft silvery metallic poor metal, elemental gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures. As it liquefies slightly above room temperature, it will melt in the hand. Its melting point is used as a temperature reference point, and from its discovery in 1875 to the semiconductor era, its primary uses were in high-temperature thermometric applications and in preparation of metal alloys with unusual properties of stability, or ease of melting; some being liquid at room temperature or below. The alloy Galinstan (68.5% Ga, 21.5% In, 10% Sn) has a melting point of about −19 °C (−2.2 °F).

In semiconductors, an important application is in the compounds gallium arsenide and gallium nitride, used most notably in blue and violet light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and diode lasers. Semiconductor use is now almost the entire (> 95%) world market for gallium, but new uses in alloys and fuel cells continue to be discovered.

Gallium is not known to be essential in biology, but because of the biological handling of gallium's primary ionic salt gallium(III) as though it were iron(III), the gallium ion localizes to and interacts with many processes in the body in which iron(III) is manipulated. As these processes include inflammation, which is a marker for many disease states, several gallium salts are used, or are in development, as both pharmaceuticals and radiopharmaceuticals in medicine.

Contents 1 Notable characteristics 2 History 3 Occurrence 4 Production 5 Applications 5.1 Semiconductors 5.2 Wetting and alloy improvement 5.3 Galinstan and other liquid alloys 5.4 Energy storage 5.5 Biomedical applications 5.5.1 As gallium(III) salts 5.5.2 As radiogallium salts 5.6 Other uses 6 Chemistry 6.1 Chalcogen compounds 6.2 Aqueous chemistry 6.3 Pnictogen compounds 6.4 Halides 6.5 Hydrogen compounds 7 Precautions 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

Notable characteristics

Elemental gallium is not found in nature, but it is easily obtained by smelting. Very pure gallium metal has a brilliant silvery color and its solid metal fractures conchoidally like glass. Gallium metal expands by 3.1 percent when it solidifies, and therefore storage in either glass or metal containers is avoided, due to the possibility of container rupture with freezing. Gallium shares the higher-density liquid state with only a few materials like silicon, germanium, bismuth, antimony and water.

Gallium attacks most other metals by diffusing into their metal lattice. Gallium for example diffuses into the grain boundaries of Al/Zn alloys^[1] or steel,^[2] making them very brittle. Also, gallium metal easily alloys with many metals, and was used in small quantities as a plutonium-gallium alloy in the plutonium cores of the first and third nuclear bombs, to help stabilize the plutonium crystal structure.^[3]

The melting point of 302.9146 K (29.7646°C, 85.5763°F) is near room temperature. Gallium's melting point (mp) is one of the formal temperature reference points in the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) established by BIPM.^[4][5][6] The triple point of gallium of 302.9166 K (29.7666°C, 85.5799°F), is being used by NIST in preference to gallium's melting point.^[7]

Gallium is a metal that will melt in one's hand. This metal has a strong tendency to supercool below its melting point/freezing point. Seeding with a crystal helps to initiate freezing. Gallium is one of the metals (with caesium, rubidium, francium and mercury) which are liquid at or near normal room temperature, and can therefore be used in metal-in-glass high-temperature thermometers. It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal, and (unlike mercury) for having a low vapor pressure at high temperatures. Unlike mercury, liquid gallium metal wets glass and skin, making it mechanically more difficult to handle (even though it is substantially less toxic and requires far fewer precautions). For this reason as well as the metal contamination problem and freezing-expansion problems noted above, samples of gallium metal are usually supplied in polyethylene packets within other containers.

Gallium does not crystallize in any of the simple crystal structures. The stable phase under normal conditions is orthorhombic with 8 atoms in the conventional unit cell. Each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 244 pm) and six other neighbors within additional 39 pm. Many stable and metastable phases are found as function of temperature and pressure.

The bonding between the nearest neighbors is found to be of covalent character, hence Ga₂ dimers are seen as the fundamental building blocks of the crystal. This explains the drop of the melting point compared to its neighbour elements aluminium and indium. The compound with arsenic, gallium arsenide is a semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes.

High-purity gallium is dissolved slowly by mineral acids.

Gallium has no known biological role, although it has been observed to stimulate metabolism.^[8]

History

Gallium (the Latin Gallia means "Gaul", essentially modern France) was discovered spectroscopically by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 by its characteristic spectrum (two violet lines) in an examination of a zinc blende from the Pyrenees.^[9] Before its discovery, most of its properties had been predicted and described by Dmitri Mendeleev (who had called the hypothetical element "eka-aluminium" on the basis of its position in his periodic table). Later, in 1875, Lecoq obtained the free metal by electrolysis of its hydroxide in potassium hydroxide solution. He named the element "gallia" after his native land of France. It was later claimed that, in one of those multilingual puns so beloved of men of science in the early 19th century, he had also named gallium after himself, as his name, "Le coq", is the French for "the rooster", and the Latin for "rooster" is "gallus"; however, in an 1877 article Lecoq denied this supposition.^[10] (The supposition was also noted in Building Blocks of the Universe, a book on the elements by Isaac Asimov; cf. the naming of the J/ψ meson.)

Occurrence

Gallium does not exist in free form in nature, and the few high-gallium minerals such as gallite (CuGaS₂) are too rare to serve as a primary source of the element or its compounds. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 16.9 ppm.^[11] Gallium is found and extracted as a trace component in bauxite and to a small extent from sphalerite. The amount extracted from coal, diaspore and germanite in which gallium is also present is negligible. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates gallium reserves to exceed 1 million tonnes, based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores.^[12][13] Some flue dusts from burning coal have been shown to contain small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight.^{[14][15][16][17]}

Production

The only two economic sources for gallium are as byproduct of aluminium and zinc production, while the sphalerite for zinc production is the minor source. Most gallium is extracted from the crude aluminium hydroxide solution of the Bayer process for producing alumina and aluminium. A mercury cell electrolysis and hydrolysis of the amalgam with sodium hydroxide leads to sodium gallate. Electrolysis then gives gallium metal. For semiconductor use, further purification is carried out using zone melting, or else single crystal extraction from a melt (Czochralski process). Purities of 99.9999% are routinely achieved and commercially widely available.^[18] An exact number for the world wide production is not available, but it is estimated that in 2007 the production of gallium was 184 tonnes with less than 100 tonnes from mining and the rest from scrap recycling.^[12]

Applications

Semiconductors

The semiconductor applications are the main reason for the low-cost commercial availability of the extremely high-purity (99.9999+%) metal.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN) used in electronic components represented about 98% of the gallium consumption in the United States in 2007. About 66% of semiconductor gallium is used in the U.S. in integrated circuits (mostly gallium arsenide), such as the manufacture of ultra-high speed logic chips and MESFETs for low-noise microwave preamplifiers in cell phones. About 20% is used in optoelectronics.^[12] World wide gallium arsenide makes up 95% of the annual global gallium consumption.^[18]

Gallium arsenide is used in optoelectronic in a variety of infrared applications. As a component of the semiconductors indium gallium nitride and gallium nitride, gallium is used to produce blue and violet optoelectronic devices, mostly laser diodes and light-emitting diodes. For example, gallium nitride 405 nm diode lasers are used as a violet light source for higher-density compact disc data storage, in the Blu-ray Disc standard.^[19]

Gallium is used as a dopant for the production of solid-state devices such as transistors. However, worldwide the actual quantity used for this purpose is minute, since dopant levels are usually of the order of a few parts per million.

Multijunction photovoltaic cell is used for special application, first developed and deployed for satellite power applications, are made by molecular beam epitaxy or metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy of thin films of gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide or indium gallium arsenide.The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.^[20] Gallium is the rarest component of new photovoltaic compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulfide or Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)₂) for use in solar panels as a more efficient alternative to crystalline silicon.^[21]

Wetting and alloy improvement

• Because gallium wets glass or porcelain, gallium can be used to create brilliant mirrors. When the wetting action of gallium-alloys is not desired (as in Galinstan glass thermometers), the glass must be protected with a transparent layer of gallium(III) oxide.^[22]
• Gallium readily alloys with most metals, and has been used as a component in low-melting alloys. The plutonium used in nuclear weapon pits is machined by alloying with gallium to stabilize its δ phase.^[23]
• Gallium added in quantities up to 2% in common solders can aid wetting and flow characteristics.

Galinstan and other liquid alloys

A nearly eutectic alloy of gallium, indium, and tin is a room temperature liquid which is widely available in medical thermometers, replacing problematic mercury. This alloy, with the trade-name Galinstan (with the "-stan" referring to the tin), has a low freezing point of −19 °C (−2.2°F).^[24] It has been suggested that this family of alloys could also be used to cool computer chips in place of water.^[25] Much research is being devoted to gallium alloys as substitutes for mercury dental amalgams, but these compounds have yet to see wide acceptance.

Energy storage

Aluminium is reactive enough to reduce water to hydrogen, being oxidized to aluminium oxide. However, the aluminium oxide forms a protective coat which prevents further reaction. Galinstan has been applied to activate aluminum (removing the oxide coat), so that aluminum can react with water, generating hydrogen and steam in a reaction being considered as a helpful step in a hydrogen economy.^[26] A number of other gallium-alluminum alloys are also usable for the purpose of essentially acting as chemical energy store to generate hydrogen from water, on-site.

After reaction with water the resultant aluminium oxide and gallium mixture might be reformed back into electrodes with energy input.^[26][27] The thermodynamic efficiency of the aluminium smelting process is estimated as 50%.^[28] Therefore, at most half the energy that goes into smelting the aluminium could be recovered by a hydrogen fuel cell.

Biomedical applications

As gallium(III) salts

• Gallium nitrate (brand name Ganite) has been used as an intravenous pharmaceutical to treat hypercalcemia associated with tumor metastasis to bones. Gallium is thought to interfere with osteoclast function. It may be effective when other treatments for maligancy-associated hypercalcemia are not.^[29]
• Gallium maltolate is in clinical and preclinical trials as a potential treatment for cancer, infectious disease, and inflammatory disease.^[30]
• Research is being conducted to determine whether gallium can be used to fight bacterial infections in people with cystic fibrosis. Gallium is similar in size to iron, an essential nutrient for respiration. When gallium is mistakenly picked up by bacteria such as Pseudomonas, the bacteria's ability to respire is interfered with and the bacteria die. The mechanism behind this is that iron is redox active, which allows for the transfer of electrons during respiration, but gallium is redox inactive.^[31][32]

As radiogallium salts

Gallium-67 salts such as gallium citrate and gallium nitrate are used as radiopharmaceutical agents in a nuclear medicine imaging procedure commonly referred to as a gallium scan. The form or salt of gallium is not important, since it is the free dissolved gallium ion Ga³⁺ which is the active radiotracer. For these applications, the radioactive isotope ⁶⁷Ga is used. The body handles Ga³⁺ in many ways as though it were iron, and thus it is bound (and concentrates) in areas of inflammation, such as infection, and also areas of rapid cell division. This allows such sites to be imaged by nuclear scan techniques. This use has largely been replaced by fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) for positron emission tomography, "PET" scan and indium-111 labelled leukocyte scans. However, the localization of gallium in the body has some properties which make it unique in some circumstances from competing modalities using other radioisotopes.

Gallium-68, a positron emitter with a half life of 68 min., is now used as a diagnostic radionuclide in CT-PET when linked to pharmaceutical preparations such as DOTATOC, a somatostatin analogue used for neuroendocrine tumors investigation, and DOTATATE, a newer one, used for neuroendocrine metastasis and lung neuroendocrine cancer, such as certain types of microcytoma. Galium-68's preparation as a pharmaceutical is chemical and the radionuclide is extracted by elution from germanium-68, a synthetic radioisotope of germanium, in gallium-68 generators.

Other uses

• Magnesium gallate containing impurities (such as Mn²⁺), is beginning to be used in ultraviolet-activated phosphor powder.
• Neutrino detection. Possibly the largest amount of pure gallium ever collected in a single spot is the Gallium-Germanium Neutrino Telescope used by the SAGE experiment at the Baksan Neutrino Observatory in Russia. This detector contains 55-57 tonnes of liquid gallium.^[33] Another experiment was the GALLEX neutrino detector operated in the early 1990s in an Italian mountain tunnel. The detector contained 12.2 tons of watered gallium-71. Solar neutrinos caused a few atoms of Ga-71 to become radioactive Ge-71, which were detected. The solar neutrino flux deduced was found to have a deficit of 40% from theory. This was not explained until better solar neutrino detectors and theories were constructed (see SNO).^[34]
• As a liquid metal ion source for a focused ion beam.
• As alloying element in the magnetic shape memory alloy Ni-Mn-Ga.

Chemistry

Gallium is found primarily in the +3 oxidation state. The +1 oxidation is also attested in some compounds, although they tend to disproportionate into elemental gallium and gallium(III) compounds. What are sometimes referred to as gallium(II) compounds are actually mixed-oxidation state compounds containing both gallium(I) and gallium(III).^[35]

Chalcogen compounds

At room temperature, gallium metal is unreactive towards air and water due to the formation of a passive, protective oxide layer. At higher temperatures, however, it reacts with oxygen in the air to form gallium(III) oxide, Ga₂O₃.^[35] Reducing Ga₂O₃ with elemental gallium in vacuum at 500 °C to 700 °C yields the dark brown gallium(I) oxide, Ga₂O.^[36]:285 Ga₂O is a very strong reducing agent, capable of reducing H₂SO₄ to H₂S.^[36]:207 It disproportionates at 800 °C back to gallium and Ga₂O₃.^[37]

Gallium(III) sulfide, Ga₂S₃, has 3 possible crystal modifications.^[37]:104 It can be made by the reaction of gallium with hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) at 950 °C.^[36]:162 Alternatively, Ga(OH)₃ can also be used at 747 °C:^[38]

2 Ga(OH)₃ + 3 H₂S → Ga₂S₃ + 6 H₂O

Reacting a mixture of alkali metal carbonates and Ga₂O₃ with H₂S leads to the formation of thiogallates containing the [Ga₂S₄]²⁻ anion. Strong acids decompose these salts, releasing H₂S in the process.^[37]:104-105 The mercury salt, HgGa₂S₄, can be used as a phosphor.^[39]

Gallium also forms sulfides in lower oxidation states, such as gallium(II) sulfide and the green gallium(I) sulfide, the latter of which is produced from the former by heating to 1000 °C under a stream of nitrogen.^[37]:94

The other binary chalcogenides, Ga₂Se₃ and Ga₂Te₃, have zincblende structure. They are all semiconductors, but are easily hydrolysed, limiting their usefulness.^[37]:104

Aqueous chemistry

Strong acids dissolve gallium, forming gallium(III) salts such as Ga₂(SO₄)₃ and Ga(NO₃)₃. Aqueous solutions of gallium(III) salts contain the hydrated gallium ion, [Ga(H₂O)₆]³⁺.^[40]:1033 Gallium(III) hydroxide, Ga(OH)₃, may be precipitated from gallium(III) solutions by adding ammonia. Dehydrating Ga(OH)₃ at 100 °C produces gallium oxide hydroxide, GaO(OH).^[36]:140-141

Alkaline hydroxide solutions dissolve gallium, forming gallate salts containing the Ga(OH)−4 anion.^{[35][40]:1033[41]} Gallium hydroxide, which is amphoteric, also dissolves in alkali to form gallate salts.^[36]:141 Although earlier work suggested Ga(OH)3−6 as another possible gallate anion,^[42] this species was not found in later work.^[41]

Pnictogen compounds

Gallium reacts with ammonia at 1050 °C to form gallium nitride, GaN. Gallium also forms binary compounds with phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony: gallium phosphide (GaP), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and gallium antimonide (GaSb). These compounds have the same structure as ZnS, and have important semiconducting properties.^[40]:1034 GaP, GaAs, and GaSb can be synthesized by the direct reaction of gallium with elemental phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony.^[37]:99 They exhibit higher electrical conductivity than GaN.^[37]:101 GaP can also be synthesized by the reaction of Ga₂O with phosphorus at low temperatures.^[43]

Gallium also forms ternary nitrides; for example:^[37]:99

Li₃Ga + N₂ → Li₃GaN₂

Similar compounds with phosphorus and antimony also exist: Li₃GaP₂ and Li₃GaAs₂. These compounds are easily hydrolyzed by dilute acids and water.^[37]:101

Halides

Gallium(III) oxide reacts with fluorinating agents such as HF or F₂ to form gallium(III) fluoride, GaF₃. It is an ionic compound strongly insoluble in water. However, it does dissolve in hydrofluoric acid, in which it forms an adduct with water, GaF₃·3H₂O. Attempting to dehydrate this adduct instead forms GaF₂OH·nH₂O. The adduct reacts with ammonia to form GaF₃·3NH₃, which can then be heated to form anhydrous GaF₃.^[36]:128-129

Gallium(III) chloride is formed by the reaction of gallium metal with chlorine gas.^[35] Unlike the trifluoride, gallium(III) chloride exists as dimeric molecules, Ga₂Cl₆, with a melting point of 78 °C. This is also the case for the bromide and iodide, Ga₂Br₆ and Ga₂I₆.^[36]:133

Like the other group 13 trihalides, gallium(III) halides are Lewis acids, reacting as halide acceptors with alkali metal halides to form salts containing GaX−4 anions, where X is a halogen. They also react with alkyl halides to form carbocations and GaX−4.^[36]:136-137

When heated to a high temperature, gallium(III) halides react with elemental gallium to form the respective gallium(I) halides. For example, GaCl₃ reacts with Ga to form GaCl:

2 Ga + GaCl₃ 3 GaCl (g)

At lower temperatures, the equillibrium shifts toward the left and GaCl disproportionates back to elemental gallium and GaCl₃. GaCl can also be made by the reaction of Ga with HCl at 950 °C; it can then be condensed as red solid.^[40]:1036

Gallium(I) compounds can be stabilized by forming adducts with Lewis acids. For example:

GaCl + AlCl₃ → Ga⁺[AlCl₄]⁻

The so-called "gallium(II) halides", GaX₂, are actually adducts of gallium(I) halides with the respective gallium(III) halides, having the structure Ga⁺[GaX₄]⁻. For example:^{[44][35][40]:1036}

GaCl + GaCl₃ → Ga⁺[GaCl₄]⁻

Hydrogen compounds

Like aluminum, gallium also forms a hydride, GaH₃, known as gallane, which may be obtained by the reaction of lithium gallanate (LiGaH₄) with gallium(III) chloride at −30 °C:^[40]:1031

3 LiGaH₄ + GaCl₃ → 3 LiCl + 4 GaH₃

In the presence of dimethyl ether as solvent, GaH₃ polymerizes to (GaH₃)_n. If no solvent is used, the dimer Ga₂H₆ (digallane) is formed as a gas. Its structure is similar to diborane, having two hydrogen atoms bridging the two gallium centers,^[40]:1031 unlike α-AlH₃ in which aluminum has a coordination number of 6.^[40]:1008

Gallane is unstable above −10 °C, decomposing to elemental gallium and hydrogen.^[45]

Precautions

While not considered toxic, the data about gallium are inconclusive. Some sources suggest that it may cause dermatitis from prolonged exposure; other tests have not caused a positive reaction. Like most metals, finely divided gallium loses its luster and powdered gallium appears gray. Thus, when gallium is handled with bare hands, the extremely fine dispersion of liquid gallium droplets, which results from wetting skin with the metal, may appear as a gray skin stain.

See also

• Gallium compounds

References

External links

• Webelements: detailed information on gallium
• WebElements.com – textbook information on gallium
• Material safety data sheet at acialloys.com
• High-resolution photographs of molten gallium, gallium crystals and gallium ingots under Creative Commons licence
• www.lenntech.com – textbook information regarding gallium
• Environmental effects of gallium
• Price development of gallium 1959-1998
• Technology produces hydrogen by adding water to an alloy of aluminum and gallium
• Pure Gallium crystals ~99,9999% picture in the element collection from Heinrich Pniok

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Large version

Gallium compounds GaAs · GaBr3 · GaCl3 · GaF3 · GaI3 · GaN · Ga(OH)3 · GaP · GaS · GaSb · GaSe · GaTe · Ga2O3 · Ga2Se3 · Ga2Te3